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Lysobacter
The genus ''Lysobacter'' belongs to the family Xanthomonadaceae within the Gammaproteobacteria and includes 13 named species: ''Lysobacter enzymogenes, L. antibioticus, L. gummosus, L. brunescens, L. defluvii, L. niabensis, L. niastensis, L. daejeonensis, L. yangpyeongensis, L. koreensis, L. concretionis, L. spongiicola'', and ''L. capsici''.〔Bae, H. S., W. T. Im, and S. T. Lee. 2005. ''Lysobacter concretionis'' sp. nov., isolated from anaerobic granules in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 55:1155-61.〕〔〔Lee, J. W., W. T. Im, M. K. Kim, and D. C. Yang. 2006. ''Lysobacter koreensis'' sp. nov., isolated from a ginseng field. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:231-5.〕〔Weon, H. Y., B. Y. Kim, Y. K. Baek, S. H. Yoo, S. W. Kwon, E. Stackebrandt, and S. J. Go. 2006. Two novel species, ''Lysobacter daejeonensis'' sp. nov. and ''Lysobacter yangpyeongensis'' sp. nov., isolated from Korean greenhouse soils. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:947-51.〕〔Weon, H. Y., B. Y. Kim, M. K. Kim, S. H. Yoo, S. W. Kwon, S. J. Go, and E. Stackebrandt. 2007. ''Lysobacter niabensis'' sp. nov. and ''Lysobacter niastensis'' sp. nov., isolated from greenhouse soils in Korea. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57:548-51.〕〔Yassin, A. F., W.-M. Chen, H. Hupfer, C. Siering, R. M. Kroppenstedt, A. B. Arun, W.-A. Lai, F.-T. Shen, P. D. Rekha, and C. C. Young. 2007. ''Lysobacter defluvii'' sp. nov., isolated from municipal solid waste. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57:1131-1136.〕〔Romanenko, L.A., Uchino, M., Tanaka, N., Frolova, G.M., Mikhailov, V.V., 2008. Lysobacter spongiicola sp. nov., isolated from a deep-sea sponge. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58, 370-374.〕〔Park, J.H., Kim, R., Aslam, Z., Jeon, C.O., Chung, Y.R., 2008. Lysobacter capsici sp. nov., with antimicrobial activity, isolated from the rhizosphere of pepper, and emended description of the genus Lysobacter. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58, 387-392.〕 ''Lysobacter'' spp. were originally grouped with myxobacteria because they shared the distinctive trait of gliding motility, but they uniquely display a number of traits that distinguish them from other taxonomically and ecologically related microbes including high genomic G+C content (typically ranging between 65 and 72%) and the lack of flagella.〔Christensen, P., and F. Cook. 1978. ''Lysobacter'', a new genus of nonfruiting, gliding bacteria with a high base ratio. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriolgy 28:367-393.〕〔 The feature of gliding motility alone has piqued the interest of many, since the role of gliding bacteria in soil ecology is poorly understood. In addition, while a number of different mechanisms have been proposed for gliding motility among a wide range of bacterial species,〔McBride, M. J. 2001. Bacterial gliding motility: Multiple mechanisms for cell movement over surfaces. Annual Review of Microbiology 55:49-75.〕 the genetic mechanism in ''Lysobacter'' remains unknown. Members of the ''Lysobacter'' group have gained broad interest for production of extracellular enzymes.〔Ahmed, K., S. Chohnan, H. Ohashi, T. Hirata, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2003. Purification, bacteriolytic activity, and specificity of β-lytic protease from ''Lysobacter'' sp. IB-9374. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 95:27-34.〕〔Allpress, J. D., G. Mountain, and P. C. Gowland. 2002. Production, purification and characterization of an extracellular keratinase from ''Lysobacter'' NCIMB 9497. Lett Appl Microbiol 34:337-42.〕〔Au, S., K. L. Roy, and R. G. von Tigerstrom. 1991. Nucleotide sequence and characterization of the gene for secreted alkaline phosphatase from ''Lysobacter enzymogenes''. J Bacteriol 173:4551-7.〕〔Chohnan, S., J. Nonaka, K. Teramoto, K. Taniguchi, Y. Kameda, H. Tamura, Y. Kurusu, S. Norioka, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2002. ''Lysobacter'' strain with high lysyl endopeptidase production. FEMS Microbiol Lett 213:13-20.〕〔Chohnan, S., K. Shiraki, K. Yokota, M. Ohshima, N. Kuroiwa, K. Ahmed, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2004. A second lysine-specific serine protease from ''Lysobacter'' sp. strain IB-9374. J Bacteriol 186:5093-100.〕〔Epstein, D. M., and P. C. Wensink. 1988. The α-lytic protease gene of ''Lysobacter enzymogenes''. The nucleotide sequence predicts a large prepropeptide with homology to propeptides of other chymotrypsin-like enzymes. J Biol Chem 263:16586-90.〕〔Ogura, J., A. Toyoda, T. Kurosawa, A. L. Chong, S. Chohnan, and T. Masaki. 2006. Purification, characterization, and gene analysis of cellulase (Cel8A) from ''Lysobacter'' sp. IB-9374. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 70:2420-8.〕〔Palumbo, J. D., R. F. Sullivan, and D. Y. Kobayashi. 2003. Molecular characterization and expression in ''Escherichia coli'' of three β-1,3-Glucanase genes from ''Lysobacter'' enzymogenes Strain N4-7. J. Bacteriol. 185:4362-4370.〕〔〔von Tigerstrom, R. G. 1980. Extracellular nucleases of ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'': production of the enzymes and purification and characterization of an endonuclease. Can J Microbiol 26:1029-37.〕〔von Tigerstrom, R. G. 1984. Production of two phosphatases by ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'' and purification and characterization of the extracellular enzyme. Appl Environ Microbiol 47:693-8.〕〔von Tigerstrom, R. G., and S. Stelmaschuk. 1987. Comparison of the phosphatases of ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'' with those of related bacteria. J Gen Microbiol 133:3121-7.〕〔Wright, D. S., L. D. Graham, and P. A. Jennings. 1998. Cloning of a ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'' gene that encodes an arginyl endopeptidase (endoproteinase Arg-C). Biochim Biophys Acta 1443:369-74.〕 The group is also regarded as a rich source for production of novel antibiotics, such as β-lactams containing substituted side chains, macrocyclic lactams and macrocyclic peptide or depsipeptide antibiotics like the katanosins.〔Bonner, D. P., J. O'Sullivan, S. K. Tanaka, J. M. Clark, and R. R. Whitney. 1988. Lysobactin, a novel antibacterial agent produced by ''Lysobacter'' sp. II. Biological properties. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 41:1745-51.〕〔Harada, S., S. Tsubotani, H. Ono, and H. Okazaki. 1984. Cephabacins, new cephem antibiotics of bacterial origin. II. Isolation and characterization. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 37:1536-45.〕〔Hashizume, H., S. Hattori, M. Igarashi, and Y. Akamatsu. 2004. Tripropeptin E, a new tripropeptin group antibiotic produced by ''Lysobacter'' sp. BMK333-48F3. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 57:394-9.〕〔Hashizume, H., S. Hirosawa, R. Sawa, Y. Muraoka, D. Ikeda, H. Naganawa, and M. Igarashi. 2004. Tripropeptins, novel antimicrobial agents produced by ''Lysobacter'' sp. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 57:52-8.〕〔Hashizume, H., M. Igarashi, S. Hattori, M. Hori, M. Hamada, and T. Takeuchi. 2001. Tripropeptins, novel antimicrobial agents produced by ''Lysobacter'' sp. I. Taxonomy, isolation and biological activities. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 54:1054-9.〕〔Kato, A., S. Nakaya, N. Kokubo, Y. Aiba, Y. Ohashi, H. Hirata, K. Fujii, and K. Harada. 1998. A new anti-MRSA antibiotic complex, WAP-8294A. I. Taxonomy, isolation and biological activities. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 51:929-35.
〕〔Kimura, H., M. Izawa, and Y. Sumino. 1996. Molecular analysis of the gene cluster involved in cephalosporin biosynthesis from ''Lysobacter'' ''lactamgenus'' YK90. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 44:589-596.〕〔Meyers, E., R. Cooper, L. Dean, J. H. Johnson, D. S. Slusarchyk, W. H. Trejo, and P. D. Singh. 1985. Catacandins, novel anticandidal antibiotics of bacterial origin. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 38:1642-8.〕〔Nakayama, T., Y. Homma, Y. Hashidoko, J. Mizutani, and S. Tahara. 1999. Possible role of xanthobaccins produced by ''Stenotrophomonas'' sp strain SB-K88 in suppression of sugar beet damping-off disease. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65:4334-4339.〕〔O'Sullivan, J., J. E. McCullough, A. A. Tymiak, D. R. Kirsch, W. H. Trejo, and P. A. Principe. 1988. Lysobactin, a novel antibacterial agent produced by ''Lysobacter'' sp. I. Taxonomy, isolation and partial characterization. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 41:1740-4.〕〔Ono, H., Y. Nozaki, N. Katayama, and H. Okazaki. 1984. Cephabacins, new cephem antibiotics of bacterial origin. I. Discovery and taxonomy of the producing organisms and fermentation. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 37:1528-35.〕
==Habitat==
''Lysobacter'' spp. have been described as ubiquitous inhabitants of soil and water.〔 Their presence has been largely ignored, since members often are minor components in sample screenings when using conventional isolation procedures. However, because of improved molecular methods of identification and better descriptions for the genus, their agricultural relevance is becoming increasingly evident, especially as members of ecologically significant microbial communities associated with soil and plants.〔〔Sullivan, R. F., M. A. Holtman, G. J. Zylstra, J. F. White, and D. Y. Kobayashi. 2003. Taxonomic positioning of two biological control agents for plant diseases as ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'' based on phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA, fatty acid composition and phenotypic characteristics. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94:1079-1086.〕〔Folman, L. B., J. Postma, and J. A. Van Veen. 2001. Ecophysiological characterization of rhizosphere bacterial communities at different root locations and plant developmental stages of cucumber grown on rockwool. Microbial Ecology 42:586-597.〕〔Islam, M. T., Y. Hashidoko, A. Deora, T. Ito, and S. Tahara. 2005. Suppression of damping-off disease in host plants by the rhizoplane bacterium ''Lysobacter'' sp. Strain SB-K88 Is linked to plant colonization and antibiosis against soilborne ''Peronosporomycetes''. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:3786-3796.〕〔Lee, M. S., J. O. Do, M. S. Park, S. Jung, K. H. Lee, K. S. Bae, S. J. Park, and S. B. Kim. 2006. Dominance of ''Lysobacter'' sp. in the rhizosphere of two coastal sand dune plant species, ''Calystegia soldanella'' and ''Elymus mollis''. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 90:19-27.〕〔Lueders, T., R. Kindler, A. Miltner, M. W. Friedrich, and M. Kaestner. 2006. Identification of bacterial micropredators distinctively active in a soil microbial food web. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:5342-5348.〕〔Nour, S. M., J. R. Lawrence, H. Zhu, G. D. W. Swerhone, M. Welsh, T. W. Welacky, and E. Topp. 2003. Bacteria associated with cysts of the soybean cyst nematode (''Heterodera glycines''). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69:607-615.〕〔Roesti, D., K. Ineichen, O. Braissant, D. Redecker, A. Wiemken, and M. Aragno. 2005. Bacteria associated with spores of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ''Glomus geosporum'' and ''Glomus constrictum''. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:6673-9.〕〔Schmalenberger, A., and C. C. Tebbe. 2003. Bacterial diversity in maize rhizospheres: conclusions on the use of genetic profiles based on PCR-amplified partial small subunit rRNA genes in ecological studies. Molecular Ecology 12:251-261.〕 Recent evidence suggests ''Lysobacter'' spp. may occupy a wide range of ecological niches beyond those associated with plants, including a broad range of ‘extreme’ environments. For example, 16S rDNA phylogenetic analyses show ''Lysobacter'' clades that include sequences obtained from hydrothermal vents, isolates from Mt. Pinatubo mud flows and upflow anaerobic blanket sludge reactors, and an iron-oxidizing, microaerophilic lithotroph.〔〔〔〔Folman, L. B., J. Postma, and J. A. van Veen. 2003. Characterisation of ''Lysobacter enzymogenes'' (Christensen and Cook 1978) strain 3.1T8, a powerful antagonist of fungal diseases of cucumber. Microbiological Research 158:107-115.〕
''Lysobacter gummosus'' was discovered living on the skin of redback salamanders and producing 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, a chemical which inhibits the growth of certain pathogenic fungi. 〔Brucker RM, Baylor CM, Walters RL, Lauer A, Harris RN, Minbiole KPC. 2008. The identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander Plethodon cinereus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 34(1):39-43.〕
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